Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

दिट्ठि

diṭṭhi

Say it: diṭ·ṭhi

feminine

Sanskrit equivalent

दृष्टि dṛṣṭi

Meaning

Diṭṭhi

feminine view, belief, dogma, theory, speculation, esp. false theory, groundless or unfounded opinion

The latter is rejected by the Buddha as pāpa˚; (AN.iv.172) and pāpikā d. (opp bhaddikā: AN.v.212 sq.; Iti.26): Vin.i.98, Vin.i.323; Dhp.164; Pv.38:54; whereas the right, the true, the best doctrine is as sammā d. the first condition to be complied with by anyone entering the Path. As such the sammā d is opposed to micchā d. wrong views or heresy (see b) Equivalent with micchā d. is kudiṭṭhi (late) Davs.ii.58
Characterized more especially as:
1. sammā diṭṭhi right doctrine, right philosophy Vin.i.10; SN.ii.17; SN.v.11, SN.v.14, SN.v.30 sq., SN.v.458 sq., MN.i.315; MN.ii.12, MN.ii.29, MN.ii.87 MN.iii.72; Cnd.485; Vb.104 sq. See magga-ujukā d SN.v.143, SN.v.165; ujugatā d. MN.i.46 sq
2. micchā d wrong theory, false doctrine SN.i.145; SN.ii.153 (caused by avijjā); MN.iii.71; Dhp.167, Dhp.316; Cnd.271#iiib; Vb.361 Vb.389
  ■ The foll. theories are to be considered as varieties of micchā d., viz. (in limited enumⁿ) akiriyavāda SN.iii.208; SN.iv.349; aññaṁ aññena SN.iii.211; antaggāhikā AN.i.154; AN.ii.240; AN.iii.130; antānantikā DN.i.22 sq. SN.iii.214, SN.iii.258 sq.; assāda˚; AN.iii.447; ahetukavādā SN.iii.210 ucchedavādā DN.i.34; SN.ii.20; SN.iii.99; SN.iii.110 sq.; bhava˚ SN.iii.93; MN.i.65; AN.i.83; sakkāya˚; AN.iii.438; AN.v.144; Snp verse 231 (cp. Kp-a.188); Cnd.271#iiib (20 fold, as diṭṭhilepa); sassatavādā DN.i.13; SN.ii.20; SN.iii.98, SN.iii.213 sq. SN.iii.258 sq
3. Various theories & doctrines are mentioned & discussed at: Vin.i.115; SN.i.133; SN.ii.61 sq. SN.ii.75 sq., SN.ii.222; SN.iii.215 sq., SN.iii.258 sq.; SN.iv.286; SN.v.448 (= DN.i.31) DN.iii.13 sq., DN.iii.45, DN.iii.246, DN.iii.267; MN.i.40; AN.i.32; AN.ii.252 sq. AN.iii.132, AN.iii.289, AN.iii.349; Thig.184; Ps.i.135 sq.; Pp.22; Ds.392, Ds.1003 (cp. Dhs. trsl. pp. 257 sq., 293, 325) Vb.145, Vb.245, Vb.341, Vb.393 sq.; Sdhp.13, Sdhp.333
4. Miscellaneous: 4 diṭṭhiyo at Vb.376; also at Vism.511 (sakkāya˚, uccheda˚, sassata˚, akiriya˚); Vism.5 Vb.378 Vb.6 at MN.i.8; Vb.382; Vb.7 at Vb.383; Vb.20 see under sakkāya˚; 62 under diṭṭhigata
  ■ In series diṭṭhi khanti ruci laddhi characterizing “diṭṭhadhamma” at Cnd.299 & passim. Diṭṭhiyā sutiyā ñāṇena in def. of a theory of cognition at Cnd.300 as complementing taṇhā see taṇhā B3. Coupled with vācā & citta in formula (taṁ) vācaṁ appahāya cittaṁ appahāya diṭṭhiṁ appaṭinissajjitvā… (nikkhitto evaṁ niraye) at SN.iv.319; DN.iii.13, DN.iii.15; combined with (& opposed to) sīla (as pāpaka & bhaddaka) at Iti.26, Iti.27
  ■ diṭṭhiṁ āsevati to hold a view MN.i.323; ˚ṁ bhindati to give up a view Ja.i.273 Davs.ii.58.

-ānugati a sign of speculation Vin.ii.108; SN.ii.203 Pp.33. -ānusaya inclination to speculation DN.iii.254 DN.iii.282; SN.v.60; AN.iv.9; -āsava the intoxicant of speculation the 3rd of four āsavā, viz. kāma˚, bhava˚, d.˚ avijjā˚ Vin.iii.5; Cnd.134; Ds.1099, Ds.1448; Vb.373 cp. ˚ogha; -upadānā taking up or adhering to false doctrines, the second of the four upādānāni or attachments viz. kāma˚, d.˚, sīlabbata˚, attavāda˚ DN.iii.230; Ds.1215, Ds.1536; -ogha the flood of false doctrine, in set of four ogha’s as under ˚āsava DN.iii.230, DN.iii.276; Cnd.178 -kantāra the wilderness of groundless speculation Ds.381, Ds.1003, Ds.1099, etc.; see ˚gata; -gaṇṭhi the web or tangle of sophisticism Vv-a.297; cp. ˚sanghāṭa; -gata (nt.) “resorting to views,” theory, groundless opinion false doctrine, often followed by series of characterizing epithets: d
■ gahana, ˚kantāra, ˚visūka, ˚vipphandita ˚saññojana, e.g. MN.i.8; Cnd.271#iiib. Of these sophistical speculations 2 are mentioned at Iti.43, Ps.i.129 Ps.i.6 at Ps.i.130; Ps.i.62 (the usual number, expressing “great and small” sets, cp. dvi AN ii.) at DN.i.12–DN.i.39 (in detail) SN.iv.286; Ps.i.130; Cnd.271#iiib; Ne.96, Ne.112, Ne.160. Vin.i.49; DN.i.162, DN.i.224, DN.i.226; SN.i.135, SN.i.142; SN.ii.230; SN.iii.109 SN.iii.258 sq. (anekavihitāni); SN.iv.286 (id.); MN.i.8, MN.i.176, MN.i.256 sq. (pāpaka), MN.i.326 (id.), MN.i.426 sq.; AN.iv.68; AN.v.72 sq., AN.v.194 (pāpaka); Snp verse 649, Snp verse 834, Snp verse 913; Pp.15; Ds.277, Ds.339, Ds.392 Ds.505; Vism.454
■ adj. ˚gatika adhering to (false) doctrine Dpvs.vi.25; -gahana the thicket of speculation Ds.381, Ds.1003; see ˚gata; -jāla the net of sophistry DN.i.46; DN-a.i.129; -ṭṭhāna a tenet of speculative philosophy DN.i.16; MN.i.136; AN.v.198; Ps.i.138 (eight) Mil.332; DN-a.i.107; -nijjhānakkhanti forbearance with wrong views SN.ii.115; SN.iv.139; AN.i.189 sq.; AN.ii.191; Cnd.151; -nipāta a glance Vv-a.279; -nissaya the foundation of speculation MN.i.137; DN.ii.137 sq.; -pakkha the side or party of sophists Ne.53, Ne.88, Ne.160; -paṭilābha the attainment of speculation MN.iii.46; -paṭivedha = prec DN.iii.253; -patta one who has formed (a right or wrong view DN.iii.105, DN.iii.254; MN.i.439; AN.i.74; AN.i.118, AN.iv.10; AN.v.23 -parāmasa perversion by false doctrine Ds.1498 -maṇḍala the circle of speculative dogmatics Dhs-a.109 -vipatti failure in theory, the 3rd of the four vipattiyo viz. sīla˚, ācāra˚, d.˚, ājīva˚; opp. ˚sampadā Vin.v.98; DN.iii.213; AN.i.95, AN.i.268; Pp.21; Ds.1362; Vb.361 -vipallāsa contortion of views AN.ii.52; -visaṁyoga disconnection with false doctrine DN.iii.230, DN.iii.276; -visuddhi beauty of right theory AN.i.95; MN.i.147 sq.; DN.iii.214 DN.iii.288; -visūka (nt.) the discord or disunion (lit. the going into parties) of theories, the (?) puppet-show of opinion MN.i.8, MN.i.486; Snp verse 55 (= dvāsaṭṭhi diṭṭhigatāni), K S ii.44; Vv.84:26; Pv.36:37; Cnd.301 (= vīsati-vattukā sakkāyadiṭṭhi); cp. Cnd.25 (attānudiṭṭhi); Ds.381 (cp. Dhs. trsl. p. 101), Ds.1003, Ds.1099. See also ˚gata; -vyasana failing or misfortune in theory (+ sīla˚, in character) DN.iii.235 Cnd.304; -saṁyojana the fetter or bond of empty speculation (cp. ˚anusaya) DN.iii.254; AN.iv.7 sq.; -saṅghāta the weft or tangle of wrong views (cp. ˚gaṇṭhi) Mnd.343 Cnd.503; -samudaya the origin of wrong views AN.iv.68 -sampadā success in theory, blessing of right views attainment of truth DN.iii.213; DN.iii.235 (opp. ˚vipatti), SN.v.30 sq.; AN.i.95, AN.i.269; AN.iii.438; AN.iv.238; Pp.25; Ds.1364; Vv-a.297; -sampanna endowed with right views SN.ii.43, SN.ii.58, SN.ii.80; SN.v.11; AN.iii.438 sq.; AN.iv.394; Vb.366 Dialogues iii.206, n. 10; -sārin (adj.) following wrong views Snp verse 911.

Sk. dṛṣṭi; cp. dassana

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source