Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

द्वि

dvi

Say it: dvi

Sanskrit equivalent

द्वि dvi, dvāu

Meaning

Dvi

number two.

A. Meanings

I. Two as unit

with objective foundation:
1. denoting a combination (pair, couple) or a repetition (twice). In this conn. frequent both objective & impersonal in mentioning natural pairs as well as psychologically contrasted notions. E.g. dvipad (biped), nāgassa dve dantā (elephants’ tusks), cakkhūni (eyes); dvija (bird), duvija (tooth), dijivha (snake) See also dutiya & dvaya
  ■ dve: kāmā, khiḍḍā, gatiyo (Snp verse 1001), dānāni (Iti.98), piyā, phalāni (Snp verse 896; Iti.39), mittā, sinehā etc. See Nd ii.under dve, cp. AN.i.47 AN.i.100; DN.iii.212–⁠DN.iii.214
2. denoting a separation (in two, twofold etc.): see dvidhā & compounds
with symbolic, sentimental meaning:
1. only two (i.e. next to one or “next to nothing”), cp. the two mites of the widow (Mark xii. 42), two sons of Rachel (Gen. 30) dumāsika not more than 2 months (Vin.ii.107); dvemāsiko gabbho (Pv.6:7); dvevācika; duvangula (see below)
2. a few more than one, some, a couple (often intermediate between 1 & 3, denoting more than once, or a comparatively long, rather long, but not like 3 a; very long time): māsadvayaṁ a couple of months dvisahassa dīpā 2000 islands (= a large number) diyaḍḍhasata 150 = very long etc.; dvīhatīha (2 or 3 a couple of days) q.v.; dvirattatiratta (id. of nights) dvīsu tīsu manussesu to some people (Pv-a.47); dvatikkhattuṁ soveral times; cp. dvikkhattuṁ (more than once), dutiyaṁ (for the second time).

II. Two as unit

in connection with its own & other.

decimals means a complex plus a pair, which amounts to the same as a large & a small unit, or so to speak “a year & a day.” E.g. 12 (sometimes, but rarely 10 + 2, see sep.); - 32: rests usually on 4 × 8, but as No. of the Mahāpurisa-lakkhaṇāni it denotes 30 + 2 the great circle plus the decisive (invisible) pair; - 62 views of heresy: see diṭṭhi; also as a year of eternity 60 kappas + 2; - 92: as measure of eternity = 90 + 2 kappas = a year & a day.

III. Number twelve

Based on natural phenomena it denotes the solar year (dvādasamāsako saṁvaccharo Vv-a.247).
Connected with the solar cult it is used with human arrangements to raise them to the level of heavenly ones and to impart to them a superior significance. Thus:
1. as denoting a set (cp. 12 months = companions of the Sun) it is the No. of a respectful holy, venerable group (cp. 12 sons of Jacob Gen. 35, 22 cakes as shewbread Lev. 25, 5; stones erected Josh. 4 8; apostles Math. 10, 2; patriarchs Acts 7, 8; companions of Odysseus Hom. Od. 9, 195; Knights of Arthur etc.): of theras, accomp^d by 12 bhikkhus Pv-a.67, Pv-a.141. 179 etc.; dvādasa koṭisatāni Snp verse 677; five groups of 12 musicians Vv-a.96 (cp. 5 × 12 cromlechs in the outer circle of Stonehenge)
2. as measure of distance in space & time it implies vast extent great importance, a climax, divine symmetry etc 12 yojanas wide extends the radiance Vv-a.16 Vv-a.12 y. as respectful distance Pv-a.137 (cp. 2000 cubits in same sense at Josh. 3, 4); Pv-a.12 y. in extent (height breadth & length) are the heavenly palaces of the Vimāna-petas or Yakkhas Vv.55:1; Ja.vi.116; Vv-a.6 Vv-a.217, Vv-a.244, Vv-a.291, Vv-a.298 etc. In the same connection we freq. find the No. 16: solasa-yojanikaṁ kanaka-vimānaṁ Vv.67:1; Vv-a.188, Vv-a.289 etc
  ■ Of years: Ja.iii.80; Vv-a.157 (dvādasa-vassikā; in this sense also 16 instead of 12 soḷasa-vassuddesika Vv-a.259 etc. See soḷasa).

B. Bases & Forms

I. dvi

main base for numeral nominal composition & derivation, in:

numeral dve (& duve) two: nom. acc.; dve (Snp.p.107; Iti.98; Ja.i.150; Ja.iv.137 etc.) & (in verse); duve (Snp verse 896, Snp verse 1001); gen. dat. dvinnaṁ (Iti.39, Iti.40, Iti.98; Ja.ii.154) instr. dvīhi (Ja.i.87: variant reading dīhi; 151; ii.153); loc. dvīsu (Ja.i.203; Pv-a.47) & duvesu (Vv.41:2).
1. as numeral base: -sahassa 2000 (see A I. 2^b) Ja.i.57; Vv-a.261; Pv-a.74; also in dvittā and adv. dvikkhattuṁ twice & dvidhā in two parts
2. as nominal base: (r)āvaṭṭa Sk. dviḥ cp. Lat. bis turning twice SN.i.32; -ja “twice born,” i.e. a bird Ja.i.152 (gaṇā) -jātin one who is born twice, i.e. a brāhmaṇa Thig.430 (Thag-a.269 = brahmajātin); -tālamatta of the size of 2 palms Dhp-a.ii.62; -pad [Sk. dvipad, Lat. bipes, Gr.δίπους etc.] a biped, man SN.i.6; -pala twofold Vism.339 -pādaka = dvipad Vin.ii.110; -bandhu having two friends Ja.vi.281; -rattatiratta two or three nights Vin.iv.16; also in dvīha two days (q.v.).
as diaeretic form duvi˚-ja (cp. dija) “growing again” i.e. a tooth Ja.v.156.
as contracted form di˚-(y)aḍḍha one and a half (lit. the second half, cp. Ger. anderthalb) Dhp.235; Ja.i.72 (diyaḍḍha-yojana-satika 150 y. long or high etc.) Ja.i.202; Ja.iv.293 (˚yāma); Dhp-a.i.395; DN-a.i.17; Mil.243 Mil.272; Dhs-a.12; -guṇa twofold, double Vin.i.289; Snp verse 714; Ja.v.309; Mil.84; Dhp-a.ii.6; Vv-a.63, Vv-a.120; -ja (cp. dvija, duvija)
1. “twice-born,” a bird SN.i.224; Snp verse 1134 (d. vuccati pakkhī Cnd.296); Ja.i.152, Ja.i.203 Ja.ii.205; Ja.iv.347; Ja.v.157; Pv.24:4; Vv.35:8 (cp. Vv-a.178) Mil.295
2. a brahmin Thag-a.70, Thag-a.73; -jivha “twotongued,” i.e. a snake (cp. du˚) Ja.iii.347; -pad (-pada or-pa) a biped (cp. dvi˚) AN.i.22; AN.v.21; Snp verse 83 (dipa-duttama), Snp verse 995 (id.) Snp verse 998; Dhp.273; -pādaka = ˚pad Thag.453 = Snp verse 205.
as sec. cpd. form (with guṇa) dve˚; (and de˚) -caturaṅga twice fourfold-eightfold Thag.520 (˚gāmin); -patha a “double” path, a border path, the boundary between two villages Vv.53:17 (-sīmantika-patha Vv-a.241); -piccha having two tail-feathers Ja.v.341 (cp. de˚); -pitika having two feathers Ja.v.424 -bhāva doubling kacc. 21; -māsika two months old Pv.6:7; -vācika pronouncing (only) two words, viz Buddha & Dhamma (cp. tevācika, saying the whole saraṇa-formula), Vin.i.4; Ja.i.81; -sattaratta twice seven nights, a fortnight [cp. Sk. dvisapta] Ja.vi.230
■ See also der. fr. numer. adv. dvidhā, viz. dvejjha (& dejjha) dvedhā˚, dveḷhaka.
as noun-derivation dvaya a dyad (q.v.).

II. du

reduced base in numeral and nominal compound & derⁿ:

-(v)addhato from both sides (a distorted form of dubhato q.v.) Vv.64:19 (= dubhato Vv-a.281); -(v)aṅgika consisting of two parts Ds.163; -(v)aṅgula & dvaṅgula; two finger-breadths or depths, two inches long, implying a minimum measure (see above AN I.2a^a) Vin.ii.107 Vin.iv.262; usually in cpds
■ kappa the 2 inch rule, i.e. a rule extending the allotted time for the morning meal to 2 inches of shadow after mid day Vin.ii.294 Vin.ii.306 -pannā wisdom of 2 finger-breadths, i.e. that of a woman SN.i.129 = Thig.60 (dvanguli˚, at Thag-a.66 as ˚saññā); -buddhika = ˚paññā Vv-a.96; -jivha twotongued (cp. di˚); a snake Ja.iv.330; Ja.v.82, Ja.v.425; -paṭṭa “double cloth” (Hind. dupaṭṭā; Kanarese dupaṭa duppaṭa; Tamil tuppaṭṭā a cloak consisting of two cloths joined together, see Kern, Toevoegselen i.179) Ja.i.119; Ja.iv.114, Ja.iv.379 (ratta˚); Dhp-a.i.249 (suratta˚) Dhp-a.iii.419 (˚cīvarā); -matta (about), Dhp-a.iii.2 in measure Mil.82 -māsika 2 months old or growing for 2 months (of hair Vin.ii.107; -vagga consisting of two Vin.i.58; -vassa 2 years old Vin.i.59; -vidha twofold, instr. duvidhena MN.iii.45 sq.; etc
■ Derivations from du˚ see sep. under duka (dyad), dutiya (the second), & the contamination forms; dubha (to) & dubhaya (for ubha & ubhaya).

III. dvā

(& reduced; dva), base in numeral compound only.

dvatikkhattuṁ two or three times Ja.i.506; DN-a.i.133, DN-a.i.264; Dhp-a.iv.38; dvādasa twelve (on meaning of this & foll. numerals see above AN II. & III.) Ja.iii.80 Ja.vi.116; Dhp-a.i.88; Dhp-a.iii.210; Vv-a.156, Vv-a.247 etc.; -yojanika Ja.i.125; Ja.iv.499; dvāvīsati (22) Vv-a.139; dvattiṁsa (32) Kp.2. (˚ākāra the 32 constituents of the body) Dhp-a.ii.88; Vv-a.39 etc.; dvācattālīsa (42) Cnd.15 Vism.82; dvāsaṭṭhi (Cnd.271#iii. & dvaṭṭhi (62) DN.i.54; SN.iii.211; DN-a.i.162); dvānavuti (92) Pv-a.19, Pv-a.21
Note. A singular case of dva as adv. = twice is in dvâhaṁ Snp verse 1116.

Sk. dvi, dva etc. Bases:
(I) dvi = Sk. dvi in dvipad = Lat. bipēs (fr. dṷipēs), Ags. twiféte; dvidant = bidens. Reduced to di (see B I.⁴) as in Gr. δδιπους (= dipad), Lat diennium & pref. dis-(cp. Goth. twis asunder, Ogh zwisk between)
(II) du (= dvi in reduced grade, cp Lat. du-plex, dubius etc.)
(III) dvā (& dva) = Sk dvāu, dvā, f. nt. dve (declined as dual, but the P (plural) inflexion from base I. see B I¹); Gr. δύω, Lat duo; Oir. dāu, dā, f. dī; Goth. twai, f. twōs; Ags. twā (= E. two); Ohg. zwēne, zwō zwei. Also in cpd num. dva-daśa twelve = Gr. δ(* ̔́)ώδεκα = Lat. duodecim

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source