Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

दस्सति

dassati

Say it: das·sa·ti

Sanskrit equivalent

darś, adrākṣīt

Meaning

*Dassati¹

to see, to perceive.

(pres.) base dakkh [Sk. drakṣ]: pres.
1. dakkhati Cnd.428 (= passati), 1st dakkhāmi ibid. (= passāmi) second dakkhasi SN.i.116; Pv.13:13 (variant reading BB adakkhi) imper. dakkha Cnd.428 (= passa)
2. dakkhiti Snp verse 909 (variant reading BB dakkhati), 3rd pl. dakkhinti Vin.i.16≈ Snp.p.15 (variant reading BB dakkhanti); DN.i.46
  aor addakkhi (Sk adrakṣīt) Vin.ii.195; SN.i.117; Snp verse 208 (= addasa Snp-a.257), Snp verse 841, Snp verse 1131; Iti.47; Ja.iii.189; & dakkhi Iti.47; 1st sg. addakkhiṁ Snp verse 938. Spelling also adakkhi (variant reading BB at Pv.13:13) & adakkhiṁ (Cnd.423)
  inf dakkhituṁ Vin.i.179
  caus p.p. dakkhāpita (shown, exhibited) Mil.119
  ■ Der. dakkhin (q.v.).
(pret.) base dass (Sk. darś & draś): aor.
1. addasa (Sk. adarśat) Snp verse 358, Snp verse 679, Snp verse 1016; Ja.i.222; Ja.iv.2; Pv.15:23 (mā addasa = addakkhiṁ Pv-a.88); Dhp-a.i.26; Pv-a.73 & (older, cp. agamā); addasā Vin.ii.192, Vin.ii.195; DN.i.112 DN.ii.16; Snp verse 409 (variant reading BB addasa), Snp verse 910 (id.); Mil.24, 1st sg. addasaṁ SN.i.101; Cnd.423 & addasaṁ Snp verse 837 (= adakkhiṁ Mnd.185), 1st pl. addasāma Snp verse 31, Snp verse 178, Snp verse 459, 3rd pl. (mā) addasuṁ Pv.19:6 (= mā passiṁsu Pv-a.102).
2. addasāsi, 1st sg. addasāsiṁ Snp verse 937, Snp verse 1145; Vv.35:52 (variant reading addasāmi), 3rd pl. addasāsuṁ Vin.ii.195; DN.ii.16; MN.i.153
3. shortened forms of aor. are: adda Thag.986; addā Ja.vi.125, Ja.vi.126
  inf daṭṭhuṁ Snp verse 685 (daṭṭhukāma); Ja.i.290; Pv.36:3 (= passituṁ Pv-a.219); Pv-a.48, Pv-a.79; Vv-a.75
  ger daṭṭhu (= Sk. dṛṣṭvā) Snp verse 424 (in phrase nekkhammaṁ daṭṭhu khemato) = Snp verse 1098; Snp verse 681 Expl. at Cnd.292 with expl. of disvā = passitvā, etc. grd. daṭṭhabba (to be regarded as) DN.ii.154; Pv-a.8, Pv-a.9 Pv-a.10, etc., Vism.464; & dassanīya (see sep.). Also in Caus. (see below) & in daṭṭhar (q.v.).
(med-pass.) base diss (Sk. dṛś): pres. pass. dissati (to be seen, to appear) Vin.i.16; Snp verse 194, Snp verse 441, Snp verse 688 (dissare), Snp verse 956; Ja.i.138; Dhp.304; Pv.8:4; Pv-a.61 (dissasi you look, intrs.); ppr. dissamāna (visible) Pv-a.71, Pv-a.6 (˚rūpa), Pv-a.162 (id.); Vv-a.78 (˚kāya); Mvu.vii.35, & der; dissamānatta (nt.) (visibility) Pv-a.103
ger disvā Snp verse 48, Snp verse 409, Snp verse 687 sq. Iti.76; Pv-a.67, Pv-a.68, etc., & disvāna Vin.i.15; Vin.ii.195; Snp verse 299, Snp verse 415, Snp verse 1017; Pv.20:7, etc., also a ger. form diṭṭhā, q.v. under adiṭṭhā
pp diṭṭha (q.v.).
caus (of base 2) dasseti (Sk. darśayati),
aor dassesi & (exceptional); dassayi, only in dassayi tumaṁ showed himself at Pv.27:4 (= attānaṁ uddisayi Pv-a.181) & Pv.27:16 (= attānaṁ dassayi dassesi pākaṭo ahosi Pv-a.185). 3rd pl. dassesuṁ;
ger dassetvā;
inf dassetuṁ to point out, exhibit, explain, intimate Dhp.83; Ja.i.84, Ja.i.200, Ja.i.263, Ja.i.266; Ja.ii.128, Ja.ii.159; Ja.iii.53, Ja.iii.82; Pv-a.4, Pv-a.8 Pv-a.16 (ovādaṁ d. give advice), Pv-a.24, Pv-a.45, Pv-a.73 etc
■ to point to (acc.) Pv-a.151 (sunakhaṁ), Pv-a.257 (dārakaṁ)
■ to make manifest, to make appear, to show or prove oneself; also intr. to appear Ja.ii.154 (dubbalo viya hutvā attānaṁ dassesi: appeared weak); Ja.vi.116; Pv.27:3 (= sammukhībhāvaṁ gacchanti Pv-a.181); Pv-a.13 (mitto viya attānaṁ dassetvā: acting like a friend) Mil.271. Esp. in phrase attānaṁ dasseti to come into appearance (of Petas): Pv-a.32, Pv-a.47, Pv-a.68, Pv-a.79, etc. (cp above dassayi)
pp dassita.

Sk. *darś in dadarśa pref. to dṛś; caus. darśayati. Cp. Gr. δέρκομαι to see; Oir. derc eye; Ags torht; Goth. ga-tarhjan to make conspicuous. The regular Pāli Pres. is dakkhiti (younger dakkhati), a new formation from the aor. addakkhi = Sk. adrākṣīt The Sk. Fut. draksyati would correspond formally to dakkhati, but the older dakkhiti points toward derivation from addakkhi. This new Pres. takes the function of the Fut.; whereas the Caus. dasseti implies a hypothetical Pres. *dassati. On dakkhati, etc. see also Kuhn, Beitr. p. 116; Trenckner, Notes pp. 57, 61 Pischel, Prk. Gr. § 554

Dassati²

fut. of dadāti, q.v.

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source