Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

दस

dasa

Say it: da·sa

Sanskrit equivalent

दश daśa

Meaning

Dasa¹

the number ten; gen dasannaṁ (Dhp.137); instr. dasahi (Kp.3.) & dasabhi (Vin.i.38). In compounds (-˚) also as ḷasa (soḷasa 16) rasa (terasa 13; pannar˚ 15; aṭṭhār˚ 18).

I. Metaphorical meaning

In the first place 10 is used for measurement (more recent & comprehensive than its base 5); it is the no. of a set or comprehensive unity, not in a vague (like 3 or 5), but in a definite sense.
There inheres in it the idea of a fixed measure, with which that of an authoritative, solemn & auspicious importance is coupled. This applies to the unit as well as its decimal combinations (100, 1000) Ethically it denotes a circle, to fulfil all of which constitutes a high achievement or power.

II. Application

(based on natural phenomena): dasa disā (10 points of the compass; see disā): Snp verse 719, Snp verse 1122; Pv-a.71, etc.; d. lokadhātuyo Pv.21:61 (= 10 × 1000; Pv-a.138); d. māse (10 months as time of gestation kucchiyā pariharitvā Ja.i.52; Pv-a.43, Pv-a.82
(fig.)
1. a set:
  1. personal (cp. 10 people would have saved Sodom: Gen. 18, 32; the 10 virgins (2 × 5) Matt. 25, 1) divase divase dasa dasa putte vijāyitvā (giving birth to 10 sons day by day) Pv.6
  2. impersonal: 10 commandments (dasa sikkhāpadāni Vin.i.83), cp. Exod 34, 28; 10 attributes of perfection of a Tathāgata or an Arahant: Tathāgata-balāni; with ref. to the Buddha see Vin.i.38 & cp.; Vin. Texts i.141 sq.; dasah’ angehi samannāgato arahā ti vuccati (in memorizing of No. 10 Kp.3. dasahi asaddhammehi sam˚ kāko Ja.iii.127–Ja.iii.10 heavenly attributes (ṭhānāni): āyu etc. DN.iii.146; SN.v.275; Pv-a.9, opp. 10 afflictions as punishment (cp.10 plagues Exod. 7–11): dasannaṁ aññataraṁ ṭhānaṁ nigacchati Dhp.137 (= das. dukkha-kāraṇānaṁ, enumerated v. Dhp.138, Dhp.139) “afflicted with one of the 10 plagues” cp. Dhp-a.iii.70.
    ■ 10 good gifts to the bhikkhu (see deyyadhamma) Cnd.523; Pv-a.7; Pv-a.10 rules for the king Pv-a.161
    ■ dividing the Empire into 10 parts: Pv-a.111; etc. vassa-dasa a decade: das’ ev’ imā vassa-dasā Ja.iv.396 (enumerated under vassa); dasa-rāja-dhammā Ja.ii.367; das’ akkosa-vatthūni Dhp-a.i.212
    ■ See on similar sets AN.v.1–AN.v.310; DN.iii.266–DN.iii.271
2. a larger unity, a crowd, a vast number (of time & space)
  1. personal, often meaning “all” (cp. 10 sons of Haman were slain Esth. 9, 10; 10 lepers cleansed at one time Luke 17, 12): dasa bhātaro Ja.i.307; dasa bhātikā Pv-a.111; dasa-kaññā-sahassa-parivārā Pv-a.210 etc.
  2. impersonal (cp. 10 × 10 = many times, S.B.E. 43, 3) dasa-yojanika consisting of a good many miles Dhp-a.iii.291. dasavassasahassāni dibbāni vatthāni paridahanto (“for ever and aye”) Pv-a.76, etc.

-kkhattuṁ [Sk. ˚kṛtvah] ten times Dhp-a.i.388;
-pada (nt.) a draught-board (with 10 squares on each side) a pre-Buddhistic game, played with men and dice, on such a board DN.i.6; Vin.ii.10 = Vin.iii.180 (˚e kīḷanti) DN-a.i.85.
-bala, [Sk. daśabala] endowed with 10 (supernormal) powers, epithet of the Buddhas, esp. of Kassapa Buddha Vin.i.38 = Ja.i.84; SN.ii.27; Vism.193, Vism.391; Dhp-a.i.14; Vv-a.148, Vv-a.206, etc.
-vidha tenfold Dhp-a.i.398.
-sata ten times a hundred Vin.i.38 (˚parivāro) Snp verse 179 (yakkhā); Dhs-a.198 (˚nayano).
-sahassa ten times a thousand (freq.); ˚ī in dasa-sahassi-lokadhātu Vin.i.12 (see lokadhātu).

Sk. daśa = Av. dasa, Gr. δέκα, Lat. decem, Goth. taíhun, Oir. deich, Ags. tīen, Ohg. zehan fr. *dekm̊, a cpd. of dv + km̊ = “two hands”

Dasa²

(-˚) seeing, to be seen, to be perceived or understood DN.i.18 (aññadatthu˚ sure-seeing all-perceiving = sabbaṁ passāmī ti attho DN-a.i.111); Snp verse 653 (paṭiccasamuppāda˚), Snp verse 733 (sammad˚) Ja.i.506 (yugamatta˚; variant reading dassa)
■ duddasa difficult to be seen or understood DN.i.12 (dhammā gambhīrā d. see gambhīra); MN.i.167, MN.i.487; Snp verse 938; Dhp.252; also as sududdasa Dhp.36.

Sk
■ dṛśa; cp. dassa

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source