Pali Dictionary

adjective noun

1. (adj. unpleasant, painful, causing misery (opp. sukha pleasant Vin.i.34; Dhp.117. Lit. of vedanā (sensation) MN.i.59 (˚ṁ vedanaṁ vediyamāna, see also below iii.1 e) AN.ii.116 = MN.i.10 (sarīrikāhi vedanāhi dukkhāhi). Fig. (fraught with pain, entailing sorrow or trouble) of kāmā DN.i.36 (= paṭipīḷan-aṭṭhena DN-a.i.121); Dhp.186 (= bahudukkha Dhp-a.iii.240); of jāti MN.i.185 (cp ariyasacca, below B I.); in combination dukkhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā DN.iii.106; Ds.176; Ne.7, Ne.112 sq., cp AN.ii.149 sq. ekanta˚; very painful, giving much pain SN.ii.173 SN.iii.69
2. (nt.; but pl. also dukkhā, e.g. SN.i.23; Snp verse 728; Dhp.202, Dhp.203, Dhp.221. Spelling dukha (after sukha) at Dhp.83, Dhp.203). There is no word in English covering the same ground as Dukkha does in Pali. Our modern words are too specialised, too limited, and usually too strong. Sukha & dukkha are ease and dis-ease (but we use disease in another sense); or wealth and ilth from well & ill (but we have now lost ilth); or wellbeing and ill-ness (but illness means something else in English). We are forced, therefore, in translation to use half synonyms, no one of which is exact. Dukkha is equally mental & physical. Pain is too predominantly physical, sorrow too exclusively mental, but in some connections they have to be used in default of any more exact rendering. Discomfort, suffering, ill, and trouble can occasionally be used in certain connections Misery, distress, agony, affliction and woe are never right. They are all much too strong & are only mental (see Mrs. Rh. D.; Bud. Psy. 83–⁠86, quoting Ledi Sadaw).

I. Main Points in the Use of the Word

The recognition of the fact of Dukkha stands out as essential in early Buddhism. In the very first discourse the four socalled Truths or Facts (see saccāni) deal chiefly with dukkha. The first of the four gives certain universally recognised cases of it, & then sums them up in short. The five groups (of physical & mental qualities which make an individual) are accompanied by ill so far as those groups are fraught with āsavas and grasping. (Pañc’ upādānakkhandhā pi dukkhā; cp SN.iii.47). The second Sacca gives the cause of this dukkha (see Taṇhā). The third enjoins the removal of this taṇhā. And the fourth shows the way, or method, of doing so (see Magga). These ariyasaccāni are found in two places in the older books Vin.i.10 = SN.v.421 (with addition of soka-parideva… etc. see below in some MSS). Comments on this passage, or part of it, occur SN.iii.158, SN.iii.159; with explⁿ of each term (+ soka) DN.i.189; DN.iii.136, DN.iii.277; MN.i.185; AN.i.107; Snp.p.140; Cnd. under sankhārā; Iti.17 (with dukkhassa atikkama for nirodha), Iti.104, Iti.105; Ps.i.37; Ps.ii.204, Ps.ii.147 Pp.15, Pp.68; Vb.328; Ne.72, Ne.73. It is referred to as dukkha, samudaya, nirodha, magga at Vin.i.16, Vin.i.18, Vin.i.19; DN.iii.227; Cnd.304#iib; as āsavānaṁ khaya-ñāṇa at DN.i.83; Vin.iii.5; as sacca No. 1 + paṭiccasamuppāda at AN.i.176 sq. (+ soka˚); in a slightly diff. version of No. 1 (leaving out appiyehi & piyehi, having soka instead) at DN.ii.305; and in the formula catunnaṁ ariyasaccānaṁ ananubodhā etc. at DN.ii.90 = Vin.i.230.

II. Characterisation in Detail

1. A further specification of the 3^rd of the Noble Truths is given in the Paṭicca-samuppāda (q.v.), which analyses the links & stages of the causal chain in their interdependence as building up (anabolic = samudaya) &, after their recognition as causes, breaking down (katabolic = nirodha the dukkha-synthesis, & thus constitutes the Metabolism of kamma; discussed e.g. at Vin.i.1; DN.ii.32 sq = SN.ii.2 sq.; SN.ii.17, SN.ii.20, SN.ii.65 = Cnd.680#i.c; SN.iii.14; MN.i.266 sq.; MN.ii.38; AN.i.177; mentioned e.g. at AN.i.147; MN.i.192 sq., MN.i.460; Iti.89 (= dukkhassa antakiriyā).
2. Dukkha as one of the 3 qualifications of the sankhārā (q.v.), viz. anicca, d., anattā, evanescence, ill, nonsoul: SN.i.188; SN.ii.53 (yad aniccaṁ taṁ dukkhaṁ); SN.iii.112 (id.), SN.iii.67, SN.iii.180, SN.iii.222; SN.iv.28, SN.iv.48, SN.iv.129 sq.; SN.iv.131 sq
   ■ rūpe anicc’ ânupassī (etc. with dukkh’ & anatt’) SN.iii.41 anicca-saññā, dukkha˚ etc. DN.iii.243; AN.iii.334, cp. AN.iv.52 sq
   ■ sabbe sankhārā aniccā etc. Nd ii.under sankhārā.
3. Specification of Dukkha. The Niddesa gives a characteristic description of all that comes under the term dukkha. It employs one stereotyped explanation (therefore old & founded on scholastic authority) (Cnd.304^i.), & one explⁿ (304^iii.) peculiar to itself & only applied to Snp verse 36. The latter defines illustrates dukkha exclusively as suffering & torment incurred by a person as punishment, inflicted on him either by the king or (after death) by the guardians of purgatory (niraya-pālā; see detail under niraya, & cp below III. 2 b
   ■ The first explⁿ (304^i.) is similar in kind to the definition of d. as long afterwards given in the Sānkhya system (see Sānkhya-kārikā-bhāṣya of Gauḍapāda to stanza 1) & classifies the various kinds of dukkha in the foll. groups:
   1. all suffering caused by the fact of being born, & being through one’s kamma tied to the consequent states of transmigration; to this is loosely attached the 3 fold division of d. as dukkha˚, sankhāra˚, vipariṇāma˚ (see below III.1 c)-
   2. illnesses & all bodily states of suffering (cp ādhyātmikaṁ dukkhaṁ of Sānkhya k.)
   3. pain (bodily) discomfort through outward circumstances, as extreme climates, want of food, gnat-bites etc. (cp ādhibhautikaṁ & ādhidaivikaṁ d. of Sk.)
   4. (Mental distress & painful states caused by the death of one’s beloved or other misfortunes to friends or personal belongings (cp. domanassa)
      ■ This list is concluded by a scholastic characterisation of these var. states as conditioned by kamma, implicitly due to the afflicted person not having found his “refuge,” i.e. salvation from these states in the 8 fold Path (see above B I.).

III. General Application

& various views regarding dukkha.

1. As simple sensation (: pain) & related to other terms:
   1. principally a vedanā, sensation, in particular belonging to the body (kāyika), or physical pain (opp. cetasika dukkha mental ill: see domanassa) Thus defined as kāyikaṁ d. at DN.ii.306 (cp. the distinction between śarīraṁ & mānasaṁ dukkhaṁ in Sānkhya philosophy) MN.i.302; SN.v.209 (in def. of dukkhindriya); AN.ii.143 (sarīrikā vedanā dukkhā); Ne.12 (duvidhaṁ d.: kāyikaṁ = dukkhaṁ; cetasikaṁ domanassaṁ); Vism.165 (twofold), Vism.496 (dukkhā aññaṁ na bādhakaṁ), Vism.499 (seven divisions), Vism.503 (kāyika) Snp-a.119 (sukhaṁ vā dukkhaṁ vā Snp verse 67 = kāyikaṁ sātāsātaṁ). Bdhgh. usually paraphrases d. with vaṭṭadukkha e.g. at Snp-a.44, Snp-a.212, Snp-a.377, Snp-a.505
   2. Thus to be understood as physical pain in combination dukkha domanassa “pain & grief,” where d. can also be taken as the gen. term & dom˚ as specification, e.g. in cetasikaṁ dukkhaṁ domanassaṁ paṭisaṁvedeti AN.i.157, AN.i.216 AN.iv.406; SN.ii.69; rāgajan d ˚ṁ dom ˚ṁ paṭisaṁvedeti AN.ii.149; kāmûpasaṁhitaṁ d ˚ṁ dom ˚ṁ AN.iii.207; d ˚ṁ dom ˚ṁ paṭisaṁvediyati SN.iv.343. Also as cpd. dukkhadomanassānaṁ atthangamāya AN.iii.326, & freq. in formula soka-parideva-d˚-domanass-upāyāsā (grief sorrow, afflictions of pain & misery, i.e. all kinds of misery) DN.i.36 (arising fr. kāmā); MN.ii.64; AN.v.216 sq. Iti.89 etc. (see above B I. 4). Cp. also the combination dukkhī dummano “miserable and dejected” SN.ii.282-
   3. dukkha as “feeling of pain” forms one of the three dukkhatā or painful states, viz. d
      ■ dukkhatā (painful sensation caused by bodily pain), sankhāra id. having its origin in the sankhārā, vipariṇāma˚, being caused by change SN.iv.259; SN.v.56; DN.iii.216; Ne.12
   4. Closely related in meaning is ahita “that which is not good or profitable,” usually opposed to sukha hita. It is freq. in the ster. expression “hoti dīgharattaṁ ahitāya dukkhāya” for a long time it is a source of discomfort & pain AN.i.194 sq.; MN.i.332; DN.iii.157 Pp.33. Also in phrases anatthāya ahitāya dukkhāya DN.iii.246 & akusalaṁ… ahitāya dukkhāya saṁvattati AN.i.58
   5. Under vedanā as sensation are grouped the 3: sukhaṁ (or sukhā ved.) pleasure (pleasant sensation), dukkhaṁ pain (painful sens.), adukkham-asukhaṁ indifference (indifferent sens.), the last of which is the ideal state of the emotional habitus to be gained by the Arahant (cp. upekhā & nibbidā) Their rôle is clearly indicated in the 4th jhāna: sukhassa pahānā dukkhassa pahānā pubbe va somanassadomanassānaṁ atthangamā adukkham-asukhaṁ upekhā parisuddhiṁ catutthaṁ jhānaṁ upasampajja viharati (see jhāna)
      ■ As contents of vedanā: sukhaṁ vediyati dukkhaṁ v. adukkham-asukhaṁ v. tasmā vedanā ti SN.iii.86, SN.iii.87; cp. SN.ii.82 (vedayati). tisso vedanā sukha, d˚, adukkham-asukhā˚ DN.iii.275; SN.ii.53 SN.iv.114 sq., SN.iv.207, SN.iv.223 sq., cp. MN.i.396; AN.i.173; AN.iv.442; Iti.46, Iti.47. yaṁ kiñc’ āyaṁ purisa-puggalo paṭisaṁvedeti sukhaṁ vā d ˚ṁ vā a ˚ṁ vā sabban taṁ pubbe katahetū ti = one’s whole life-experience is caused by one’s former kamma AN.i.173 = MN.ii.217
      ■ The combination (as complementary pair) of sukha + dukkha is very freq for expressing the varying fortunes of life & personal experience as pleasure & pain, e.g. n’ âlam aññamaññassa sukhāya vā dukkhāya vā sukhadukkhāya vā DN.i.56 = SN.iii.211. Thus under the 8 “fortunes of the world” (loka dhammā) with lābha (& a˚), yasa (a˚) pasaṁsā (nindā), sukha (dukkha) at DN.iii.260; Cnd.55 Regarded as a thing to be avoided in life: puriso jīvitukāmo… sukhakāmo dukkha-paṭikkūlo SN.iv.172 SN.iv.188
      ■ In similar contexts: DN.i.81 ≈ DN.iii.51, DN.i.109, DN.i.187; SN.ii.22, SN.ii.39; SN.iv.123 sq.; AN.ii.158 etc. (cp. sukha).
2. As complex state (suffering) & its valuation in the light of the Doctrine:
   1. any worldly sensation pleasure & experience may be a source of discomfort (see above, I.; cp. esp. kāma & bhava) Ps; i.11 sq. (specified as jāti etc.); dukkhaṁ = mahabbhayaṁ SN.i.37; bhārādānaṁ dukkhaṁ loke bhāra-nikkhepanaṁ sukhaṁ (pain is the great weight) SN.iii.26; kāmānaṁ adhivacanaṁ AN.iii.310; AN.iv.289; cp. AN.iii.410 sq. (with kāmā, vedanā saññā, āsavā, kamma, dukkhaṁ)
   2. ekanta˚; (extreme pain) refers to the suffering of sinful beings in Niraya, & it is open to conjecture whether this is not the first & orig. meaning of dukkha; e.g. MN.i.74; AN.ii.231 (vedanaṁ vediyati ekanta-d˚ṁ seyyathā pi sattā nerayikā); see ekanta. In the same sense:… upenti Roruvaṁ ghoraṁ cirarattaṁ dukkhaṁ anubhavanti SN.i.30; niraya-dukkha Snp verse 531; pecca d˚ṁ nigacchati Snp verse 278, Snp verse 742; anubhonti d˚ṁ kaṭuka-pphalāni Pv.11:10 (= āpāyikaṁ d˚ṁ Pv-a.60); Pv-a.67; mahādukkhaṁ anubhavati Pv-a.43, Pv-a.68, Pv-a.107 etc. atidukkhaṁ Pv-a.65; dukkhato pete mocetvā Pv-a.8
   3. to suffer pain, to experience unpleasantness etc. is expressed in foll. terms: dukkhaṁ anubhavati (only w ref. to Niraya, see b); anveti Dhp.1 (= kāyikaṁ cetasikaṁ vipāka-dukkhaṁ anugacchati Dhp-a.i.24), upeti Snp verse 728 carati SN.i.210; nigacchati MN.i.337; Snp verse 278, Snp verse 742; paṭisaṁvedeti MN.i.313 (see above); passati SN.i.132 (jāto dukkhāni passati: whoever is born experiences woe) vaḍḍheti SN.ii.109; viharati AN.i.202; AN.ii.95; AN.iii.3; SN.iv.78 (passaddhiyā asati d˚ṁ v. dukkhino cittaṁ na samādhiyati); vedayati, vediyati, vedeti etc. see above III.1 e; sayati AN.i.137
   4. More specific reference to the cause of suffering & its removal by means of enlightenment:
      1. Origin (see also above I. & II. 1): dukkhe loko patiṭṭhito SN.i.40; yaṁ kiñci dukkhaṁ sambhoti sabbaṁ sankhāra-paccayā Snp verse 731; ye dukkhaṁ vaḍḍhenti te na parimuccanti jātiyā etc. SN.ii.109; d˚ṁ ettha bhiyyo Snp verse 61, Snp verse 584; yo paṭhavī-dhātuṁ abhinandati dukkhaṁ so abhin˚ SN.i.174; taṇhā d ˚ssa samudayo etc. Ne.23 sq.; as result of sakkāyadiṭṭhi SN.iv.147, of chanda SN.i.22 of upadhi SN.ii.109, cp. upadhīnidānā pabhavanti dukkhā Snp verse 728; d˚ṁ eva hi sambhoti d˚ṁ tiṭṭhati veti ca SN.i.135
      2. Salvation from Suffering (see above I.): kathaṁ dukkhā pamuccati Snp verse 170; dukkhā pamuccati SN.i.14; SN.iii.41, SN.iii.150; SN.iv.205 SN.v.451; na hi putto pati vā pi piyo d ˚ā pamocaye yathā saddhamma-savanaṁ dukkhā moceti pāṇinaṁ SN.i.210 na appatvā lokantaṁ dukkhā atthi pamocanaṁ AN.ii.49 Kammakkhayā… sabbaṁ d˚ṁ nijjiṇṇaṁ bhavissati MN.ii.217, cp. MN.i.93. kāme pahāya… d˚ṁ na sevetha anatthasaṁhitaṁ SN.i.12 = SN.i.31; rūpaṁ (etc.) abhijānaṁ bhabbo d-˚kkhayāya SN.iii.27; SN.iv.89; d˚ṁ pariññāya sakhettavatthuṁ Tathāgato arahati pūraḷāsaṁ Snp verse 473 pajahati d˚ṁ Snp verse 789, Snp verse 1056. dukkhassa samudayo ca atthangamo ca SN.ii.72; SN.iii.228 sq.; SN.iv.86, SN.iv.327
         ■ dukkhass’ antakaro hoti MN.i.48; AN.iii.400 sq.; Iti.18 antakarā bhavāmase Snp verse 32; antaṁ karissanti Satthu sāsana-kārino AN.ii.26; d ˚parikkhīṇaṁ SN.ii.133; akiñcanaṁ nânupatanti dukkhā SN.i.23; sankhārānaṁ nirodhena n’ atthi d˚assa sambhavo Snp verse 731
         ■ muniṁ d˚assa pārayuṁ SN.i.195 = Cnd.136#v; antagū ‘si pāragū d˚assa Snp verse 539
         ■ sang’ ātiko maccujaho nirūpadhi pahāya d˚ṁ apunabbhavāya SN.iv.158; ucchinnaṁ mūlaṁ d˚assa, n’ atthi dāni punabbhavo Vin.i.231; DN.ii.91.

• -ādhivāha bringing or entailing pain SN.iv.70;
• -anubhavana suffering pain or undergoing punishment (in Niraya) Ja.iv.3;
• -antagū one who has conquered suffering Snp verse 401;
• -ābhikiṇṇa beset with pain, full of distress Iti.89;
• -āsahanatā non-endurance of ills Vism.325
• -indriya the faculty of experiencing pain, painful sensation SN.v.209, SN.v.211; Ds.556, Ds.560; Vb.15, Vb.54, Vb.71
• -udraya causing or yielding pain, resulting in ill, yielding distress MN.i.415 sq.; AN.i.97; AN.iv.43 (+ dukkhavipāka); AN.v.117 (dukh˚), AN.v.243; Ja.iv.398; of kamma Ps.i.80; Ps.ii.79; Pv.11:10 (so read for dukkhandriya which is also found at Pv-a.60); Dhp-a.ii.40 (˚uddaya)
• -ūpadhāna causing pain Dhp.291;
• -ūpasama the allayment of pain or alleviation of suffering, only in phrase (aṭṭhangiko maggo) d-ûpasama-gāmino SN.iii.86; Iti.106; Snp verse 724 = Dhp.191;
• -(m)esin wishing ill, malevolent Ja.iv.26;
• -otiṇṇa fallen into misery SN.iii.93; MN.i.460 MN.ii.10;
• -kāraṇa labour or trials to be undergone as punishment Dhp-a.iii.70 (see Dhp.138, Dhp.139 & cp. dasa¹ B.1 b)
• -khandha the aggregate of suffering, all that is called pain or affliction (see above B II. 1) SN.ii.134; SN.iii.93; MN.i.192 sq.; MN.i.200 sq.; etc.;
• -khaya the destruction of pain, the extinction of ill MN.i.93; MN.ii.217 (kammakkhayā d-kkhayo); SN.iii.27; Snp verse 732. Freq. in phrase (nīyāti or hoti) sammā-d-kkhayāya “leads to the complete extinction of ill,” with ref. to the Buddha’s teaching or the higher wisdom, e.g. of brahmacariyā SN.ii.24; of paññā DN.iii.268; AN.iii.152 sq.; of ariyā diṭṭhi DN.iii.264 = AN.iii.132; of sikkhā AN.ii.243; of dhamma MN.i.72;
• -dhamma the principle of pain, a painful object, any kind of suffering (cp. ˚khandha DN.iii.88; SN.iv.188 (˚ānaṁ samudayañ ca atthagamañ ca yathābhūtaṁ pajānāti); Iti.38 (nirodha ˚anaṁ);
• -nidāna a source of pain MN.ii.223; Ds.1059, Ds.1136;
• -nirodha the destruction of pain, the extinction of suffering (see above B II. 1) MN.i.191; MN.ii.10; AN.iii.410, AN.iii.416; etc.
• -paṭikkūla averse to pain, avoiding unpleasantness, in combination sukhakāmo d-p. SN.iv.172 (spelt ˚kulo), SN.iv.188; MN.i.341;
• -patta being in pain Ja.vi.336;
• -pareta afflicted by pain or misery SN.iii.93; Iti.89 = AN.i.147;
• -bhummi the soil of distress Ds.985;
• -vāca hurtful speech Pv.3:2 (should probably be read duṭṭha˚);
• -vipāka (adj. having pain as its fruit, creating misery SN.ii.128; DN.iii.57, DN.iii.229; AN.ii.172 (kamma); Ps.ii.79 (id.);
• -vepakka = ˚vipāka Snp verse 537 (kamma);
• -saññā the consciousness of pain Ne.27;
• -samudaya the rise or origin of pain or suffering (opp. ˚nirodha; see above B II. 1) SN.iv.37; MN.i.191; MN.ii.10; MN.iii.267; Vb.107 (taṇhā ca avasesā ca kilesā: ayaṁ vuccati d-s.);
• -samphassa contact with pain MN.i.507; Ds.648; f. abstr. -tā Pp.33;
• -seyya an uncomfortable couch Dhp-a.iv.8.

Sk. duḥkha fr. duḥ-ka, an adj. formation fr. prefix duḥ (see du). According to others an analogy formation after sukha, q.v.; Bdhgh (at Vism.494) explains dukkha as du + kha, where du = du¹ and kha = ākāsa. See also def. at Vism.461.