Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

चेतो

ceto

Say it: ce·to

neuter

Sanskrit equivalent

चेतस् cetas

Meaning

Ceto

neuter = citta, q.v. for detail concerning derivation, inflexion & meaning. Cp. also cinteti.; Only the gen. cetaso & the instr.; cetasā are in use besides these there is an adj. cetaso, der. from nom base cetas. Another adj. form is the inflected nom. ceto, occurring only in viceto SN.v.447 (+ ummatto, out of mind).

I. Ceto in its relation to similar terms

with kāya & vācā: kāyena vācāya cetasā (with hand speech & heart) Snp verse 232; Kh IX. kāya (vācā˚, ceto˚-muni a saint in action, speech & thought AN.i.273 Cnd.514. In this phrase the Nd has mano˚ for ceto˚ which is also aN variant reading at A-passage
with paññā (see citta iv. b) in ceto-vimutti, paññā-vimutti (see below iv.)
with samādhi, pīti, sukha, etc.: see ˚pharaṇatā below.

II. Cetaso (gen.)

heart. c˚ upakkilesa (stain of h.) DN.iii.49, DN.iii.101; SN.v.93. līnatta (attachment) SN.v.64. appasāda (unfaith) SN.i.179; ekodibhāva (singleness) DN.iii.78; SN.iv.236 (see 2^nd jhāna); āvaraṇāni (hindrances) S 66
■ vimokkha (redemption) SN.i.159 santi (tranquillity) Snp verse 584, Snp verse 593. vūpasama (id. AN.i.4; SN.v.65. vinibandha (freedom) DN.iii.238; AN.iii.249; AN.iv.461 sq
mind. c˚ vikkhepa (disturbance) AN.iii.448; AN.v.149: uttrāsa (fear) Vb.367. abhiniropanā (application) Ds.7
thought. in c˚ parivitakko udapādi “there arose a reflection in me (gen.) SN.i.139; SN.ii.273; SN.iii.96, SN.iii.103.

III.Cetasā (instr.)

heart. mettā-sahagatena c (with a h. full of love) freq. in phrase ekaṁ disaṁ pharitvā etc. e.g. DN.i.186, DN.iii.78, DN.iii.223; SN.iv.296; AN.i.183 AN.ii.129; AN.iv.390; AN.v.299, AN.v.344; Vb.272. ujubhūtena (upright) SN.ii.279; AN.i.63; vivaṭena (open) DN.iii.223; SN.v.263; AN.iv.86. macchera-maḷa-pariyuṭṭhitena (in which has arisen the dirt of selfishness) SN.iv.240; AN.ii.58. santim pappuyya c. SN.i.212. taṇhādhipateyyena (standing under the sway of thirst) SN.iii.103-vippasannena (devout) SN.i.32 = SN.i.57, SN.i.100; Dhp.79; Pv.10:10. muttena AN.iv.244. vimariyādi-katena SN.iii.31 vigatâbhijjhena DN.iii.49. pathavī-āpo etc
■ samena AN.iv.375 sq. ākāsasamena AN.iii.315 sq. sabba˚ SN.ii.220 abhijjhā-sahagatena AN.i.206. satārakkhena DN.iii.269; AN.v.30
■ migabhūtena cetasā, with the heart of a wild creature MN.i.450
■ acetasā without feeling, heartlessly Ja.iv.52, Ja.iv.57
mind: in two phrases viz.
1. c. anuvitakketi anuvicāreti “to ponder & think over in one’s mind” DN.iii.242; AN.i.264; AN.iii.178;
2. c. pajānāti (or manasikaroti) “to know in one’s mind,” in the foll. expressions: para-sattānaṁ para-puggalānaṁ cetasā ceto-paricca pajānāti “he knows in his mind the ways of thought (the state of heart) of other beings” (see ceto-paricca & ˚pariyāya) MN.ii.19; SN.ii.121, SN.ii.213; SN.v.265; AN.i.255 = AN.iii.17 = AN.iii.280. puggalaṁ paduṭṭha-cittaṁ evaṁ c˚ ceto-paricca p. Iti.12, Iti.13 Arahanto… Bhagavanto c˚ cetoparicca viditā DN.iii.100. para-cittapariyāya kusalo evaṁ c˚ ceto paricca manasikaroti AN.v.160. Bhagavā [brāhmaṇassa c˚ ceto-parivitakkaṁ aññāya “perceiving in his mind the thought of (the b.)]” SN.i.178; DN.iii.6; AN.iii.374; Mil.10.

IV. compounds

-khila fallowness, waste of heart or mind usually as pañca c-khilā, viz. arising from doubt in the Master, the Norm, the Community, or the Teaching or from anger against one’s fellow-disciples, DN.iii.237 DN.iii.278; MN.i.101; AN.iii.248 = AN.iv.460 = AN.v.17; Ja.iii.291; Vb.377; Vism.211.
-paṇidhi resolution, intention, aspiration Vv.47:12 (= cittassa samma-d-eva ṭhapanaṁ Vv-a.203) Mil.129;
-padosa corruption of the h., wickedness AN.i.8; Iti.12, Iti.13 (opp. pasāda):
-paricca “as regards the heart,” i.e. state of heart, ways of thought, character mind (= pariyāya) in ˚ñāṇa Thig.71 = Thig.227 (explained at Thag-a.76, Thag-a.197 by cetopariyañāṇa) see phrase cetasā c-p above (iii. b.);
-pariyāya the ways of the heart (= paricca), in para-ceto-pariyāya-kusalo “an expert in the ways of others’ hearts” AN.v.160; c-p-kovido encompassing the heart of others SN.i.146, SN.i.194 = Thag.1248; SN.i.196 = Thag.1262. Also with syncope:
-pariyañāṇa DN.i.79; DN.iii.100; Vism.431; DN-a.i.223.
-parivitakka reflecting, reasoning SN.i.103, SN.i.178;
-pharaṇatā the breaking forth or the effulgence of heart, as one of five ideals to be pursued, viz. samādhi, pīti-pharaṇatā sukha˚, ceto˚, āloka˚ DN.iii.278;
-vasippatta mastery over one’s h. AN.ii.6, AN.ii.36, AN.ii.185; AN.iv.312; MN.i.377; Vism.382; Mil.82, Mil.85;
-khila fallowness, waste of heart or mind usually as pañca c-khilā, viz. arising from doubt in the Master, the Norm, the Community, or the Teaching or from anger against one’s fellow-disciples, DN.iii.237 DN.iii.278; MN.i.101; AN.iii.248 = AN.iv.460 = AN.v.17; Ja.iii.291; Vb.377; Vism.211.
-vivaraṇa setting the h. free AN.iv.352 AN.v.67. See also arahant II D.
-samatha calm of h Thig.118;
-samādhi concentration of mind (= cittasamādhi DN-a.i.104) DN.i.15; DN.iii.30; SN.iv.297; AN.ii.54 AN.iii.51;
-samphassa contact with thought Ds.3.

Sk. cetas

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source