Pronunciation guide: the Pali alphabet and its sounds

Pali has 41 letters, in this order (the dictionary’s order): a ā i ī u ū e o · k kh g gh ṅ · c ch j jh ñ · ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ · t th d dh n · p ph b bh m · y r l ḷ v s h · ṃ. Devanagari is shown beside each word; Pali is also written in Sinhala, Burmese, Thai and other scripts.

Vowels

a	अ	a in “about” (short)
ā	आ	a in “father” (long)
i	इ	i in “sit”
ī	ई	ee in “see” (long)
u	उ	u in “put”
ū	ऊ	oo in “food” (long)
e	ए	ay in “day”; short before two consonants (mettā)
o	ओ	o in “go”; short before two consonants (sotthi)

Consonants

Throat

k	क	k in “skin”
kh	ख	k with a puff
g	ग	g in “go”
gh	घ	g with a puff
ṅ	ङ	ng in “sing”

Palate

c	च	ch in “church” (never k)
ch	छ	ch with a puff
j	ज	j in “jam”
jh	झ	j with a puff
ñ	ञ	ny in “canyon”

Tongue curled back

ṭ	ट	t, tongue tip curled back
ṭh	ठ	the same with a puff
ḍ	ड	d, tongue curled back
ḍh	ढ	the same with a puff
ṇ	ण	n, tongue curled back

Teeth

t	त	t on the teeth (French t)
th	थ	t with a puff, “at home” (never “thin”)
d	द	d on the teeth
dh	ध	d with a puff, “adhere” (never “this”)
n	न	n in “nut”

Lips

p	प	p in “spin”
ph	फ	p with a puff, “uphill” (never “f”)
b	ब	b in “bat”
bh	भ	b with a puff, “abhor”
m	म	m in “mat”

Others

y	य	y in “yes”
r	र	a light tapped r
l	ल	l in “love”
ḷ	ळ	l with the tongue curled back
v	व	between v and w
s	स	s in “sun” (never z)
h	ह	h in “hand”
ṃ	ं	niggahīta: a nasal hum (saṃgha ≈ “sang-gha”); also written ṁ

How to say a word

An h after a consonant (kh, th, dh, ph, bh…) is a puff of breath, never English “th” or “ph”.
Double consonants are held: dham·ma, bud·dha, sat·ta (like “bookcase”, not “booking”).
Long syllables have ā ī ū e o, end in ṃ, or come before two consonants; the others are short. Stress the second-last syllable if it is long (nib·bā·na, met·tā), otherwise the one before it.
Each entry shows the word split into syllables, e.g. nib·bā·na, saṅ·gha, met·tā.

Pali grammar, metre and literary devices

Grammar: genders and numbers

masculine	dhamma, buddha	most -a stems; nominative -o (dhammo)
feminine	mettā, paññā	mostly -ā, -i, -ī stems
neuter	citta, rūpa	-a stems; nominative -aṃ (cittaṃ)
singular / plural	dhammo / dhammā	Pali has two numbers; the old dual is lost

Grammar: the 8 cases (dhamma, masc.)

nominative	dhammo · dhammā	subject
accusative	dhammaṃ · dhamme	object; goal of motion
instrumental	dhammena · dhammehi	by, with
dative	dhammāya, dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	to, for
ablative	dhammā, dhammasmā, dhammamhā · dhammehi	from; because of
genitive	dhammassa · dhammānaṃ	of
locative	dhamme, dhammasmiṃ, dhammamhi · dhammesu	in, on, at; when
vocative	dhamma · dhammā	O …!

Singular · plural. buddha declines the same way: buddho, buddhaṃ, buddhena, buddhāya/buddhassa, buddhā, buddhassa, buddhe, buddha.

Grammar: verbs (bhavati / hoti “is, becomes”)

present	bhavati, hoti · bhavanti, honti	he/she is · they are; also bhavāmi/homi “I am”
aorist (past)	ahosi · ahesuṃ	he/she was · they were (also abhavi)
future	bhavissati, hessati, hohiti	will be
optative	bhaveyya	may be, should be (wishes, rules, conditions)
imperative	bhavatu, hotu · hontu	let it be · let them be
conditional	abhavissa	would have been (rare)

Grammar: non-finite forms

absolutive -tvā	bhavitvā, hutvā; gantvā, disvā	having been; having gone, having seen
infinitive -tuṃ	bhavituṃ, kātuṃ, gantuṃ	to be, to do, to go
present participle -nt / -māna	bhavanto, bhavamāna	being
past participle -ta / -na	bhūta, kata, dinna	become, done, given
future passive -tabba / -anīya	kātabba, karaṇīya	to be done, what should be done

Grammar: compounds (samāsa)

dvanda	samaṇabrāhmaṇā	“ascetics and brahmins”: X and Y
tappurisa	rājaputta	“king’s son”: Y of/by/for X
kammadhāraya	mahāpurisa	“great man”: Y that is X
digu	tiratana	“the three jewels”: a numeral first
bahubbīhi	mahāpañña	“(one) having great wisdom”: describes someone else
avyayībhāva	yathābalaṃ	“according to strength”: indeclinable, adverb-like

Grammar: sandhi (joining sounds)

vowel dropped	na + atthi → natthi	“there is not”
vowels merge	tatra + ayaṃ → tatrāyaṃ	a + a → ā
i + vowel	iti + evaṃ → iccevaṃ	i becomes y, ty → cc
ṃ + vowel	evaṃ + āha → evam āha	ṃ becomes m
ṃ + consonant	saṃ + gaha → saṅgaha	ṃ takes the nasal of the next consonant
doubling	pa + kamati → pakkamati	a consonant is doubled after a prefix

Prosody: heavy and light syllables

garu (heavy) –	ā ī ū e o; a short vowel + ṃ or two consonants	dham- in dhamma, saṃ- in saṃgha
lahu (light) ⏑	a short vowel (a i u) + at most one consonant	ma- in manasā

Metres are counted either by syllables (akkharachandas) or by morae, mattā (light = 1, heavy = 2).

Prosody: main metres

siloka (anuṭṭhubha)	4 × 8 syllables	the commonest; even lines usually end ⏑ – ⏑ x
tuṭṭhubha	4 × 11 syllables	yānīdha bhūtāni samāgatāni (Ratana-sutta, Sn 222)
jagatī	4 × 12 syllables	a tuṭṭhubha line with one more syllable; the two are often mixed in one verse
vetālīya	lines of 14 + 16 mattā	counted in morae, with the cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ –
opacchandasaka	lines of 16 + 18 mattā	like vetālīya, cadence – ⏑ – ⏑ – –
mattāchandas	metres counted in mattā	vetālīya, opacchandasaka and the old gīti/āryā forms

Dhammapada 1 (siloka): manopubbaṅgamā dhammā / manoseṭṭhā manomayā / manasā ce paduṭṭhena / bhāsati vā karoti vā: “Mind precedes things; mind is their chief, they are mind-made; if one speaks or acts with a corrupted mind …”

Literary devices in the canon

repetition, peyyāla	… pe …	repeated passages are written once and abbreviated with pe(yyāla), “and so on”
stock formulas	evaṃ me sutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā …	“Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One …”
numerical lists	cattāri ariyasaccāni	the Aṅguttara Nikāya is arranged by number (ones to elevens); mātikā are the Abhidhamma’s lists of headings
similes (upamā)	seyyathāpi … evam eva	“just as … even so”, e.g. the raft (kullūpama, MN 22)
verse and prose (geyya)	prose then summarising verses	geyya is one of the nine kinds (aṅga) of the Teacher’s word
dialogue, questions	taṃ kiṃ maññatha bhikkhave, rūpaṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā ti? aniccaṃ bhante	teaching by question and answer (SN 22.59)
refrains	eko care khaggavisāṇakappo	“let one wander alone like the rhinoceros horn” ends each verse of Sn 35–75
chiasmus, ring structure	na hi verena verāni sammantīdha kudācanaṃ / averena ca sammanti	mirrored order (Dhp 5); many suttas end by returning to their opening
word-play	lujjatī ti kho bhikkhu, tasmā loko ti vuccati	“it crumbles (lujjati), so it is called the world (loka)” (SN 35.82)
epithets	bhagavā, tathāgata, sugata	and the ‘iti pi so’ list: arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno …
framing stories	paccuppannavatthu · atītavatthu · samodhāna	a Jātaka’s present story frames the past story, then identifies the characters; Vinaya rules each have an origin story
uddāna	a mnemonic verse after each vagga	lists a key word from each sutta so the chapter can be recited from memory

Sources: A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali (Pali Text Society, 3rd ed. 2001) and Pali Metre (PTS, 1967); W. Geiger, Pāli Literatur und Sprache (1916), rev. K. R. Norman as A Pāli Grammar (PTS, 1994); K. R. Norman, Pāli Literature (1983) and his papers on Pāli metre.

Pali Dictionary

कप्प

kappa

Say it: kap·pa

adjective noun

Sanskrit equivalent

कल्प kalpa

Meaning

Kappa

adjective noun anything made with a definite object in view, prepared, arranged; or that which is fit, suitable, proper. See also DN-a.i.103 & Kp-a.115 for var. meanings.

I. Literal Meaning

(adj.) fitting, suitable, proper (cp. ˚tā) (= kappiya) in kappâkappesu kusalo Thag.251 ˚kovido Mhvs.15, Mhvs.16; Snp verse 911; as juice Mil.161. (-˚) made as, like, resembling Vin.i.290 (ahata˚) Snp verse 35 (khaggavisāṇa˚); hetu˚ acting as cause to Snp verse 16; Mil.105
■ a˚ incomparable Mhvs.14, Mhvs.65.
(nt.) a fitting, i.e. harness or trapping (cp. kappana) Vv.20:9 (Vv-a.104)
■ a small black dot or smudge (kappabindu) imprinted on a new robe to make it lawful Vin.i.255; Vin.iv.227, Vin.iv.286: also fig. a making-up (of a trick) lesa˚ DN-a.i.103; Vv-a.348

II. Applied Meaning

(qualitative) ordinance, precept, rule; practice manner Vin.ii.294, Vin.ii.301 (:kappati singiloṇa-kappo “fit is the rule concerning…”); cp. Mhvs.4, Mhvs.9; one of the chalanga, the 6 disciplines of Vedic interpretation Vv-a.265.
(temporal) a “fixed” time, time with ref. to individual and cosmic life. As āyu at DN-a.i.103 (cp.kappaṁ); as a cycle of time = saṁsāra at Snp verse 521, Snp verse 535 Snp verse 860 (na eti kappaṁ); as a measure of time: an age of the world Vin.iii.109; Mil.108; Sdhp.256, Sdhp.257; Pv-a.21; Iti.17 = Bdhd 87 = SN.ii.185. There are 3 principal cycles or aeons: mahā˚, asaṅkheyya˚, antara˚; each mahā consists of 4 asankheyya-kappas, viz. saṁvaṭṭa˚ saṁvaṭṭaṭṭhāyi˚ vivaṭṭa˚ vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi˚ AN.ii.142; often abbreviated to saṁvaṭṭa-vivaṭṭa˚ DN.i.14; Iti.15; freq in formula ekampijātiṁ, etc. Vin.iii.4 = DN.iii.51, DN.iii.111; Iti.99. On pubbanta˚ & aparanta˚, past & future kappas see D; i.12 sq. paṭhama-kappe at the beginning of the world, once upon a time (cp. atīte) Ja.i.207. When kappa stands by itself, a Mahā-kappa is understood DN-a.i.162. A whole, complete kappa is designated by kevala˚ Snp.p.18 = Snp verse 46~Snp verse 125; Snp verse 517; also dīgha SN.ii.181; Sdhp.257. For similes as to the enormous length of a kappa see SN.ii.181 & DN-a.i.164 = Pv-a.254-acc. kappaṁ adv.: for a long time DN.ii.103 = DN.ii.115; Ud.62, quot. at DN-a.i.103; Vin.ii.198; Iti.17; Mil.108 mayi āyukappaṁ Ja.i.119, cp. Mil.141. Cp. saṅkappa.

-ātīta one who has gone beyond time, an Arahant Snp verse 373. -āvasesaṁ (acc.) for the rest of the kappa, in kappaṁ vā k-âvasesaṁ vā DN.ii.117 = AN.iv.309 = Ud.62; Mil.140: -āyuka (one) whose life extends over a kappa Mhvs.v.87; -uṭṭhāna arising at or belonging to the (end of a) kappa: -aggi the fire which destroys the Universe Ja.ii.397; Ja.iii.185; Ja.iv.498; Ja.v.336; Ja.vi.554; Vism.304 -kāla the time of the end of the world Ja.v.244
■ uṭṭhāna (by itself) the end of the world Ja.i.4 = Vism.415; -kata on which a kappa, i.e. smudge, has been made, ref. to the cīvara of a bhikkhu (see above) Vin.i.255; Vin.iv.227 Vin.iv.286; DN-a.i.103; -(ñ)jaha (one) who has left time behind free from saṁsāra, an Arahant Snp verse 1101 (but explained at Cnd. s.v., see also DN-a.i.103, as free from dve kappā diṭṭhi˚ taṇha˚). -jāla the consumption of the kappa by fire, the end of a kappa Dpvs.i.61. -ṭṭha staying there for a kappa, i.e. in purgatory in āpāyiko nerayiko atekiccho, said of Devadatta Vin.ii.202, Vin.ii.206; AN.iii.402 ~AN.iv.160; Iti.11~Iti.85. -ṭṭhāyin lasting a whole cycle of a vimāna Thag.1190. -ṭṭhika enduring for an aeon kibbisa (of Devadatta) Vin.ii.198 = Vin.ii.204; (cp. Vin. Texts iii.254) sālarukkha Ja.v.416; see also ṭhitakappiṁ Pp.13. -ṭṭhitika id. Dhp-a.i.50 (vera); Mil.108 (kammaṁ) (“sabbe pi magga-samangino puggalā ṭhita-kappino.” -ṭṭhiya- = prec. AN.v.75; Ja.i.172, Ja.i.213; Ja.v.33; Mil.109 Mil.214. -rukkha the tree that lasts for a kappa, ref. to the cittapāṭalī, the pied trumpet-tree in the abode of the Asuras Ja.i.202; -nibbatta originated at the beginning of the k. (appl. to the flames of purgatory) Ja.v.272 -parivaṭṭa the evolution of a k; the end of the world Dpvs.i.59; -pādapa = ˚rukkha Mhbv.2; -rukkha a wishing tree, magical tree, fulfilling all wishes; sometimes fig. Ja.vi.117, Ja.vi.594; Vism.206; Pv-a.75, Pv-a.176, Pv-a.121; Vv-a.32 (where combined with cintāmaṇi); Dhp-a.iv.208 -latā a creeper like the kapparukkha Vv-a.12; -vināsaka (scil. aggi): the fire consuming the world at the end of a k. Vism.414 sq.; (mahāmegho) Dhp-a.iii.362; -samaṇa an ascetic acc. to precepts, an earnest ascetic Ja.vi.60 (cp. samaṇa-kappa); -halāhala “the k-uproar,” the uproar near the end of a kalpa Ja.i.47.

Sk. kalpa, see kappeti for etym. & formation

Pali Text Society Pali–English Dictionary (Rhys Davids & Stede, 1921–25). Source